Principles of 3-D Seismic Interpretation

  

Course Instructor:   Mangat R. Thapar, Ph.D.

 

Who should attend?

Interpreters who need an understanding of 3-D seismic interpretation fundamentals, geophysicists, geologists, technical support personnel, seismic processors, data processing and acquisition supervisors and managers. This course will benefit any geoscience professional who utilizes 3-D seismic data.

 

Prerequisites:

It is recommended that participants take Seismic Survey Design, Acquisition, and Processing, and AVO and Seismic Attributes, or equivalent courses.

 

Course Description:

Costing less than a few pennies per barrel of oil, 3-D seismic surveys can be extremely prudent investments. 3-D seismic data not only reduces the risk of drilling exploration and development  wells, but also can dramatically increase production from existing fields. The success of any exploration or development program, utilizing 3-D seismic data, is dependent upon accurate, three-dimensionally viable interpretations of the seismic data. The successful application of a 3-D seismic survey depends on the following principles of proper design, acquisition, processing, guarding against pitfalls, and utilization of available 3-D technologies for accurate and three dimensionally valid structural and stratigraphic interpretations. This course covers the following fundamental seismic principles:

 

(1)           A detailed step by step discussion of how to design a 3-D survey along with crucial processing steps and related pitfalls

(2)           A discussion of the application of VSP, methodology for mapping channels, Geostatistical Krigging for thickness interpolation, time lapse 3-D (4-D), principles of P & S wave (multi-component) anisotropy analysis and interpretation, component rotation, and S-wave splitting into slow and fast due to fractures and saturation.

(3)           In-depth explanation of thin bed thickness estimation using properly processed and modeled amplitudes and frequencies, and related pitfalls.

(4)           How to utilize of seismic attributes including coherency and variance?

(5)           How to apply seismic modeling in 3-D analysis and to convert stacking into interval velocities for dipping layers?

(6)           A detailed step by step procedure for structural interpretation is presented. In this section of the course, we use a live demonstration of principles of 3-D design (using OMNI), analysis and interpretation (using Geographix – Discovery).

(7)           Procedures for stratigraphic interpretation are presented with examples and exercises.

(8)           How to conduct the risk analysis of 4-D seismic, reviewing more than 20 case histories from many parts of the world.

 

Exercises

Exercises are conducted throughout the course to enhance the understanding of principles presented. Some of these exercises include:

 

(a)           Designing a 3-D survey over a prospect.

(b)           Mapping reservoir thickness from seismic amplitudes, recognize and overcome a very important pitfall.

(c)           Several exercises for mapping faults and reservoirs to estimate oil and gas resources or reserves.

(d)           The mapping of channels in the presence of structure using in-lines, cross-lines and horizontal slices.

(e)           Reservoir management and 4-D exercise to estimate the life of the field and time lapse, and design 4-D parameters.

(f)             Group discussion and analysis exercise to systematically review and evaluate more than twenty 3-D case histories

 

 

Course Content

·                     Overview of 3-D data acquisition and processing

·                     Principles of 3-D migration

·                     Horizontal and horizon slices

·                     3-D modeling

·                     3-D seismic technologies

·                     Reduced risk using 4-D

·                     Successful applications of 3-D in E&P

·                     Geostistical Kriging and variogram

·                     Anisotropy, 3-D, 3-C, S-waves

·                     Principles of structural & stratigraphic Interpretation

·                     Application of seismic attributes 

·                     Thickness estimation using amplitude modeling, and  frequency

·                     Reservoir management using 3-D

·                     Summary of 3-D seismic case histories from around the world

 

Participants will learn how to:

• Utilize essential procedures in structural and stratigraphic interpretation

• Apply fundamental principles of structural and stratigraphic interpretation

• Use Geostatistical Kriging

• Use S-waves in fractured reservoir interpretation

• Estimate thin bed thickness with 3-D data

• Make use of reservoir characterization and compartmentalization tools

• Conduct risk analysis of 4-D data

 

Participants are encouraged to bring data examples related to this course.

 

Chapter 1

Introduction and Overview of 3-D

Chapter 2

Survey Planning and Design

Chapter 3

Seismic Technology

Chapter 4

Thickness Estimation from Amplitudes

Chapter 5

Application of Seismic Attributes

Chapter 6

Seismic Modeling

Chapter 7

3-D Structural Interpretation

Chapter 8

3-D Stratigraphic Interpretation

Chapter 9

Reservoir Management

Chapter 10

Successful Applications & Reduced Risk in E&P

Chapter 11

3-D Case Histories

Exercises

3-D Exercises

 

3-D Seismic

Chapter 1 : Introduction and Overview of 3-D

Chapter 1 : Introduction and Overview of 3-D  1-1

Calculation of Fresnel Radius. 1-2

Velocity – Frequency – Wavelength Relationship. 1-2

Impact of Fresnel Zone Concept of Seismic Reflections. 1-4

Data Processing Flow for 3-D Seismic. 1-4

3-D Data Acquisition. 1-4

Types of 3-D Surveys: 1-4

Directional 3-D Surveys. 1-4

True 3-D Surveys. 1-4

3-D Data Processing. 1-8

Initial or Pre-Processing. 1-8

3-D Velocity Analysis. 1-8

Important Requirements for a 3-D Velocity Analysis. 1-8

Multi-parameter Velocity Analysis. 1-8

Statics Estimation and Correction in 3-D. 1-10

Factors Affecting Seismic Amplitude in 3-D. 1-14

Reflection and Transmission Loss. 1-14

Spherical Divergence. 1-14

Attenuation. 1-14

Total Amplitude Decay. 1-14

Stacking in 3-D. 1-16

Common Midpoint Stacking. 1-17

Common Reflection Point Stacking. 1-17

Migration in 3-D. 1-17

Full 3-D Migration: 1-17

2-Step 3-D Migration Process: 1-17

2-Step 3-D Cascading Migration Process: 1-17

Forward Modeling. 1-17

Inverse Modeling. 1-17

Seismic Migration - Inverse Modeling. 1-17

Post Stack Migration. 1-17

Pre-Stack Migration. 1-23

Volume Displays of 3-D Data. 1-26

Benefit of 3-D Seismic Coverage Over 2-D Seismic. 1-26

Horizontal Slices. 1-26

Surface Map (Courtesy of Geoquest) 1-26

Horizon and Fault Surface Slice (Courtesy of Geoquest) 1-26

 


 

Chapter 2: Survey Planning and Design

Chapter 2 : Survey Planning and Design  2-1

Review Historical Data for Geology and Geophysics. 2-2

Survey Design Objective and Planning. 2-3

Data Acquisition Configurations. 2-3

Problems and Difficulties in Survey Design. 2-3

3-D Survey Design and Analysis. 2-4

Fundamentals of 3-D Seismic Surveys. 2-4

Fresnel Zone as Applied to Seismic Reflections and Migration. 2-4

Major Steps in Designing 3-D Surveys. 2-8

Survey Design to Meet Processing Objectives. 2-8

Template Design: Number and Length of Receiver Lines. 2-8

Swath Surveys. 2-8

Full 3-D Surveys. 2-9

Loop Surveys. 2-9

Circular Surveys. 2-9

Parallel Surveys. 2-9

Checkerboard Survey. 2-9

Marine Surveys. 2-9

Random Source and Receiver Surveys. 2-9

Transition Zone Surveys. 2-9

Full or Dense 3-D  2-10

Swath  2-10

Orthogonal 2-11

Non-Orthogonal 2-11

Brick  2-11

Flexibin or Bin Fractionation  2-11

Button Patch or Checkerboard  2-11

Zig-zag  2-11

Mirror Image Zig-zag  2-11

Double Zig-zag  2-12

Megabin  2-12

Star 2-12

Radial 2-12

Circular Patch  2-12

Random Source-Receiver Layout 2-12

Aerial Coverage. 2-17

Shooting Dip/Strike. 2-18

Bin Size and Fold. 2-19

Source Interval and Source Line Spacing. 2-20

Receiver Interval and Receiver Line Spacing. 2-20

Template Movement 2-21

Estimating Number of Moves for a Template: 2-21

Attribute Analysis. 2-21

Recording Equipment, Seismic Crew and Cost 2-26

Designing a 3-D Survey Example. 2-26

Case Histories. 2-27

Parallel Swath 3-D Survey. 2-27

Marine-Transition-Land 3-D Survey. 2-29

 


 

Chapter 3: Seismic Technology

Chapter 3 : Seismic Technology  3-1

Technology Developments. 3-2

VSP and Sonic Logs. 3-2

Stratigraphic Cross-Sections. 3-3

Pressure History from Wells. 3-4

Seismic Sequence Stratigraphy. 3-4

Seismic Sedimentology. 3-8

Seismic Facies. 3-13

Pattern Recognition. 3-13

Structure and Faulting. 3-14

Channels. 3-15

Reservoir Characterization. 3-17

Geostatistical Kriging. 3-17

Modeling Variogram.. 3-17

Object Oriented Modeling. 3-23

Technology Developments. 3-23

Seismic Amplitudes in 3-D Surveys. 3-23

Factors Affecting Seismic Amplitudes. 3-23

Types of Amplitude Anomalies. 3-25

Bright-Spot 3-25

Dim-Spot 3-25

Amplitude Alignment 3-25

Amplitude Horizontal Slices. 3-26

Amplitude Horizon Maps. 3-26

Reservoir Properties. 3-27

Amplitude and Structure. 3-27

Amplitude and Lithology. 3-27

Time Lapse Reservoir Monitoring Using 4-D Seismic Surveys. 3-28

Fundamental Requirements of 4-D Seismic Surveys: 3-28

Comparison of 3-D Surveys: 3-28

Time Lapse 3-D or 4-D Surveys. 3-28

Principles of Multicomponent Seismic. 3-29

Polarization. 3-29

Anisotropy. 3-29

Inherent 3-30

Induced. 3-30

Long Wavelength. 3-30

Azimuthal 3-30

Transverse Isotropy. 3-30

S-Wave Splitting. 3-31

Multicomponent Acquisition. 3-32

Important Factors in Multicomponent Data Acquisition. 3-32

Multi-Component Seismic Data Processing. 3-32

Component Rotation. 3-33

Separation of S-Wave Components. 3-33

P-S NMO Correction. 3-35

Velocity Analysis and Muting. 3-35

Common (P-S) Conversion Point Binning. 3-35

Statics. 3-36

Processing Flow. 3-36

Post-Stack Residual Rotation. 3-36

Principles of Interpretation and Applications. 3-37

Rock Properties from 3-Component Data. 3-38

Seismic Processing Onboard Marine Vessels. 3-43

3-D Depth Imaging. 3-45

Workstation Technology. 3-45


 

Chapter 4: Thickness Estimation from Amplitudes

Chapter 4 : Thickness Estimation from Amplitudes  4-1

Thick Layers. 4-2

RMS and Stacking Velocities. 4-2

Tuning Amplitude. 4-5

Constructive Interference. 4-5

Procedure for Thickness Estimation of Thin Beds. 4-6

Thickness Estimation using Dominant Frequency. 4-10

Wavelet Processing. 4-12

Amplitude and ΔT Values. 4-14

Thickness from Amplitude and ΔT. 4-15

Calculating Amplitude Response Curve. 4-15

Frequency. 4-17

Dominant Frequency and Dominant Amplitude. 4-17

Discrete Frequency Components. 4-17

Notches in Frequency Spectrum.. 4-17

3-D Frequency Volume. 4-18

Thickness Calculation from Frequency Components. 4-19

Wavelet Character Variation. 4-22

Frequency Content and Notches. 4-22

Velocity Decrease or Increase. 4-22

Effect of DC Bias on Spectrum.. 4-26

 


 

Chapter 5: Application of Seismic Attributes

Chapter 5 : Application of Seismic Attributes  5-1

Application of Seismic Attributes to 3-D Seismic Data. 5-2

Classification of Seismic Attributes. 5-2

Seismic Attributes and Reservoir Rock Properties. 5-2

Complex Trace. 5-2

Amplitude Based. 5-4

Energy. 5-5

Frequency. 5-5

Phase. 5-5

Polarity Based Attributes. 5-5

Acoustic Inversion. 5-5

Coherency Based Attributes. 5-5

Seismic Attributes and Wave Propagation. 5-12

Seismic Attributes Used for Reservoir Rock Properties. 5-13

Seismic Amplitude. 5-14

Coherency or Semblance. 5-15

Variance. 5-15

Application of Variance. 5-17

Variance and Coherence. 5-17

Amplitude Based. 5-17

Energy Based. 5-17

Amplitude and Polarity Weighted. 5-17

Volume Visualization and Voxels. 5-23

Voxel Trace. 5-23

Opacity Representation and Editor 5-23

Visualization Procedure. 5-23

Visualization & Interpretation. 5-24

Stratigraphic Visualization. 5-24

Structural Visualization. 5-24

Pitfalls. 5-25

Important Points. 5-25

Autopicking or Autotracking of Reflector Surfaces. 5-25

Voxel Tracking. 5-26

Surface Slicing. 5-26

Stratigraphic Interpretation. 5-26

Attributes and Seismic Data. 5-28

 


 

Chapter 6: Seismic Modeling

Chapter 6 : Seismic Modeling (3-D) 6-1

Factors Affecting Seismic Wave Propagation. 6-2

Factors Affecting Velocity. 6-3

Factors Affecting Frequency. 6-3

Factors Affecting Phase. 6-4

1-D Seismic Modeling. 6-4

Seismic Wavelet 6-4

Synthetic from Sonic Log. 6-4

Synthetic and Seismic Comparison. 6-5

2-D Seismic Modeling. 6-11

Geometry. 6-11

Elastic Parameters. 6-11

Seismic Wavelet 6-11

Synthetic Traces. 6-12

Raytracing and Reflection Coefficient Series. 6-12

Wavelet 6-13

Applications of 2-D Modeling. 6-13

Normal Incident Ray. 6-13

Vertical Incident Ray. 6-13

Oblique Incident Ray. 6-13

3-D Seismic Modeling. 6-20

Elastic Parameters. 6-20

Seismic Wavelet 6-21

Applications of Modeling. 6-21

Inverse Modeling: Downward Continuation Method. 6-23

RMS and Interval Velocities. 6-23

RMS and Stacking Velocities. 6-23

Time to Depth Conversion. 6-24

Following are the Assumptions in this Analysis: 6-24

Real Data Example. 6-24

Use of Seismic Modeling in 3-D Data Processing. 6-28

Velocity Analysis. 6-28

Binning and Stacking. 6-28

Time Migration. 6-28

Inverse Modeling Time Maps to Depth. 6-28

Map Migration. 6-28

Seismic Modeling in 3-D Data Interpretation. 6-30

3-D Seismic Modeling in 3-D Depth Migration. 6-31

Gridding Techniques. 6-31

Triangulation. 6-31

Triangulation Examples. 6-35

Inverse Distance Interpolation. 6-35

Directional Weighting. 6-35

Trend Surface Polynomial and Residuals. 6-36

Steps in Contouring Seismic Data. 6-36

 


 

Chapter 7: 3-D Structural Interpretation

Chapter 7 : 3-D Structural Interpretation  7-1

3-D Interpretation. 7-2

Structural Interpretation Steps. 7-2

Fault Detection and Interpretation. 7-3

Estimating Fault Throw. 7-4

Fault Polygon or Gap. 7-4

Interpret and Pick Faults. 7-4

Interpret Horizons. 7-5

Draw Fault Polygon. 7-5

Structural Maps. 7-7

Time Maps. 7-7

Depth Maps. 7-8

Time Interval Maps. 7-8

Thickness Maps. 7-8

Dip Maps. 7-8

Coherency Maps. 7-9

Volumetric Analysis or Reservoir Evaluation. 7-14

Material Balance. 7-15

Seismic Sections. 7-15

Constant Time Slices or Structure and Slicing. 7-15

Constant Time Slices and Seismic Data. 7-18

Horizon Surface Slices and Seismic Data. 7-24

Recognition of Structures and Features on Horizontal Slices. 7-26

Anticlinal Structures. 7-26

Synclinal Structures. 7-26

Recognition of Structure and Faults on Horizontal Slices. 7-26

Faulted Anticlinal Structures. 7-26

Contouring from Seismic Slices. 7-28

Structural Relationships between Structures and Faults. 7-28

Structure Contour Maps Using Vertical Sections. 7-28

Structure Contour Maps Using Horizontal Slices. 7-28

Fault Mapping and Interpretation. 7-34

Composite Displays of 3-D Data. 7-36

Interpretation Steps. 7-38

Subtle Features. 7-38

Recognition of Salt Domes on Horizontal Slices. 7-40

 


 

Chapter 8: 3-D Stratigraphic Interpretation

Chapter 8 : 3-D Stratigraphic Interpretation  8-1

Stratigraphic Features. 8-2

3-D Tools. 8-2

3-D Requirements for Stratigraphic Analysis. 8-2

Interpretation of Stratigraphic Features Using Horizontal Slices. 8-3

Resolution and Aerial Extent 8-3

Structure and Deposition. 8-3

Features Recognition. 8-4

Depositional Surface from Horizontal Slices. 8-4

Mapping Channels. 8-4

Horizon Slice. 8-6

Methods of Horizon Slice. 8-6

Poor Reflection Zone. 8-6

Horizon Slice Attributes. 8-7

Horizon Slice Benefits. 8-7

West Texas 3-D Data. 8-9

Stratigraphic Column of West Texas. 8-9

Horizontal Slices over Producing Interval 8-12

Horizontal Slices (800 – 890 ms) 8-12

800 – 810 ms. 8-12

820 – 850 ms. 8-13

860 – 890 ms. 8-14

Horizon Slices using Peaks and Troughs. 8-15

Time Slices and Coherency Slices. 8-16

Stratigraphic and Similarity Maps. 8-18

Stratigraphic Maps. 8-18

Similarity Maps. 8-18

Stratigraphic Maps. 8-19

Time Window for Stratigraphic Mapping. 8-19

Different Pilot Traces. 8-20

Number of Pilot Traces. 8-20

Decreasing Window Length. 8-22

Time Window. 8-22

Well Defined Character 8-23

Dominant Event and Window Length. 8-23

Stratigraphic and Similarity Maps. 8-25

NE Colorado – Sooner Unit 3-D Data. 8-26

Vertical Seismic Sections. 8-27

D-Sand Overlays Contours. 8-28

Horizontal Slices. 8-29

Composite Displays. 8-42

D-J Sands. 8-44

Deltaic Pattern at Niobrara. 8-47

Interpretation of Reefs on Horizontal Slices. 8-49

Interpretation of Large Circular Atoll on Horizontal Slices. 8-49

Interpretation of Unconformity. 8-49

Angular Unconformity. 8-49

Erosional Unconformity. 8-53

 


 

Chapter 9: Reservoir Management

Chapter 9 : Reservoir Management 9-1

Reservoir Management Using 3-D Seismic. 9-2

Use of 3-D Seismic in Reservoir Management 9-2

Reservoir Geometry. 9-2

Rock and Fluid Properties. 9-3

Monitoring Flow. 9-4

Reservoir Identification. 9-5

Bright Spot Reflections. 9-5

Processing: 9-5

Interpretation. 9-5

Flat Spot 9-5

Seismic Attributes. 9-6

Analysis. 9-6

Dim Spot Reflections. 9-7

Processing: 9-7

Interpretations: 9-7

Analysis: 9-7

Pitfalls of Bright and Dim Spots: 9-7

Cross-Plotting Thickness (Porosity) vs Amplitude. 9-8

Compartmentalization of Reservoir 9-9

NE Colorado – Sooner Unit 9-9

Production and Reserves: 9-9

3-D Seismic. 9-10

Reservoir Compartments. 9-10

Field Redevelopment 9-11

Conclusions. 9-11

Seismic factors in Compartmentalization. 9-13

Fault Mapping on Vertical Sections. 9-13

Fault Mapping on Horizontal Slices and Structure Maps. 9-13

Lithlogic and Stratigraphic Changes. 9-14

Reservoir Characterization. 9-23

 


 

Chapter 10: Successful Applications & Reduced Risk in E&P

Chapter 10 : Successful Applications & Reduced Risk in E&P  10-1

Successful Applications of 3-D Seismic. 10-2

Success of 3-D Seismic. 10-2

Nigeria. 10-2

Netherlands. 10-2

Shell Companies. 10-2

Exxon. 10-2

Producing Fields Reactivated with 3-D Seismic. 10-3

Reduced Risk in Exploration and Production. 10-3

Some Important Observations: 10-4

Factors Affecting Value of 3-D Seismic. 10-5

3-D Seismic and Drilling. 10-5

Risk Assessment of 4-D Seismic. 10-6

Raw Data for Reservoir and Seismic Properties. 10-6

Depth: 10-8

Net Pressure: 10-8

Bubble Point: 10-8

Temperature: 10-8

Unit Thickness: 10-8

Dry Bulk Modulus: 10-8

Porosity: 10-8

GOR: 10-9

Salinity: 10-9

4-D Fluid Saturation Change: 10-9

4-D Fluid Compressibility Contrast: 10-9

Dominant Seismic Frequency: 10-9

Average Resolution: 10-9

Image Quality: 10-9

Repeatability: 10-10

Fluid Contact Visibility: 10-10

Travel-Time Change: 10-10

Impedance Change: 10-10

Assigning Scores. 10-10

Scorecard. 10-10

Guidelines for Seismic Scores. 10-11

Quality of Seismic Data: 10-11

Seismic Data Resolution. 10-11

Seismic Reflections from Fluid Contacts: 10-12

Seismic Repeatability: 10-12

Completing the 4-D Risk Assessment Spreadsheet 10-12

Interpreting Risk Assessment Spreadsheet 10-12

Reservoir Properties and Conditions: 10-13

Seismic Properties and Conditions: 10-13

Discussion: 10-13

 


 

Chapter 11: 3-D Case Histories

Chapter 11 : 3-D Case Histories  11-1

(1)        Interpretation of Fluvial Thin-Bed Reservoirs  11-3

Reservoir 11-3

3-D Seismic Data: 11-3

Interpretation: 11-3

Conclusions: 11-3

(2)        Delineation of Thin Sandstone Reservoirs with Seismic Attributes  11-3

Reservoir 11-3

3-D Seismic Data: 11-4

Interpretation: 11-4

Conclusions: 11-4

(3)        Imaging a Shallow Fluvial System   11-4

Reservoir 11-5

3-D Seismic Data: 11-5

Interpretation: 11-5

Conclusions: 11-5

(4)        Effect of Seismic Interpretation on Reservoir Management 11-7

Reservoir 11-7

3-D Seismic Data: 11-7

Interpretation: 11-7

Conclusions: 11-7

(5)        Structural and Stratigraphic Interpretation  11-8

Reservoir 11-8

3-D Seismic Data: 11-9

Interpretation: 11-9

Conclusions: 11-11

(6)        Cost Effective Reservoir Delineation  11-11

Reservoir 11-11

3-D Seismic Data: 11-11

Interpretation: 11-11

Conclusions: 11-11

(7)        Evaluation of Ping Hu Field  11-12

Reservoir 11-12

3-D Seismic Data: 11-12

Interpretation: 11-12

Conclusions: 11-12

(8)        Impact on Development 11-13

Reservoir 11-13

3-D Seismic Data: 11-13

Interpretation: 11-13

Conclusions: 11-13

(9)        Geophysical Reservoir Characterization  11-13

Reservoir 11-13

3-D Seismic Data: 11-14

Interpretation: 11-14

Conclusions: 11-16

(10)       Seismic Modeling Using High Resolution Seismic Data  11-16

Reservoir 11-16

3-D Seismic Data: 11-16

Interpretation: 11-16

Conclusions: 11-16

(11)       Reservoir Architecture  11-18

Reservoir 11-18

3-D Seismic Data: 11-18

Interpretation: 11-18

Conclusions: 11-18

(12)       Facies Analysis  11-18

Reservoir 11-19

3-D Seismic Data: 11-19

Interpretation: 11-19

Conclusions: 11-19

(13)       Seismic Attributes and Forward Modeling  11-19

Reservoir 11-19

3-D Seismic Data: 11-21

Interpretation: 11-21

Conclusions: 11-21

(14)       Exploring for Pinnacle Reefs  11-21

Reservoir 11-21

3-D Seismic Data: 11-21

Interpretation: 11-22

Conclusions: 11-22

(15)       Delineate Porous Carbonate Debris Flows  11-22

Reservoir 11-22

3-D Seismic Data: 11-22

Interpretation: 11-22

Conclusions: 11-22

(16)       Reservoir Characterization with 3-D and 3-C Seismic Data  11-22

Reservoir 11-24

3-D Seismic Data: 11-24

Interpretation: 11-24

Conclusions: 11-24

(17)       Reservoir Delineation and Characterization  11-24

Reservoir 11-24

3-D Seismic Data: 11-24

Interpretation: 11-25

Conclusions: 11-25

(18)       Tectonics and Reef Development 11-25

Reservoir 11-25

3-D Seismic Data: 11-25

Interpretation: 11-25

Conclusions: 11-25

(19)       Prediction of Reservoir Parameters  11-27

Reservoir 11-27

3-D Seismic Data: 11-27

Interpretation: 11-27

Conclusions: 11-27

(20)       Reservoir Characterization and Development 11-27

Reservoir 11-27

3-D Seismic Data: 11-27

Interpretation: 11-28

Conclusions: 11-28

(21)       Enhanced Oil Recovery  11-28

Reservoir 11-28

3-D Seismic Data: 11-28

Interpretation: 11-28

Conclusions: 11-29

(22)       Quantitative Analysis of Seismic Reflections  11-30

Reservoir 11-30

3-D Seismic Data: 11-30

Interpretation: 11-30

Conclusions: 11-30

(23)       Structure of an Oil Field  11-30

Reservoir 11-31

3-D Seismic Data: 11-31

Interpretation: 11-31

Conclusions: 11-31


 

 

 3-D Exercises

Exercises Table of Contents. 2

Exercise 1: Frequency Aliasing. 3

Exercise 2: Volume of 3-D Data to Display and View. 3

Channel Detection. 3

Exercise 3: Maximum Migration Aperture or Fresnel Radius. 4

Exercise 4: Frequency vs Wavelength. 4

Exercise 5: Forward Modeling. 4

Inverse Modeling. 4

Migration. 4

Exercise 6: Surface Obstacles in 3-D data Acquisition. 5

Exercise 7: Survey. 5

Exercise 8: Fresnel Zone and Ray Tracing. 5

Exercise 9: Survey Design. 5

(1)Area Dimensions. 6

(2)Bin Size. 6

(3)No. of Shots per Square Kilometer 6

(4)Source Line Spacing. 6

(5)Receivers and Receiver Lines. 7

(6)Sources and Source Lines. 7

(7)Total Fold. 7

(8)Maximum Offset and number of Receivers/Line. 7

(9)Template Moves. 8

Exercise 10: P & S Wave Attenuation. 8

Attenuation of P-Waves. 8

Exercise 11: Bright and Dim Spots. 8

Exercise 12: Multi-Component Recording. 8

Exercise 13: Rock Properties. 9

Exercise 14: Depth Imaging. 9

Exercise 15: Time Lapse or 4-D Seismic. 9

Exercise 16: Thin Beds-1. 9

Exercise 17: Thin Beds-2. 9

Exercise 18: Seismic Attributes. 12

Exercise 19: Volume Visualization. 12

Exercise 20: 3-D Modeling. 12

Exercise 21: Horizontal Slices. 12

Exercise 22: 3-D Survey. 12

Exercise 23: 3-D Survey and Exploration Risk. 12

Estimate Savings due to 3-D Survey. 12

Risk Reduction. 13

Exercise 24: 3-D Case Histories. 13

Exercise 25: Thrust Model Horizontal Slices. 13

Exercise 26: Gas and Oil Model Horizontal Slices. 13

Exercise 27: Reservoir Management 14

Reservoir Compartmentalization. 14

Wavelet Response Generated Slices for the Thrust Model 14

Spike Response Generated Slices for the Thrust Model 25

Wavelet Response Generated Slices for the Oil and Gas Model 34

Spike Response Generated Slices for the Oil and Gas Model 46

Exercise 28: 3-D Case Histories Review. 74